A review concluding that Korean relationships remain clearly collectivist, rooted in Confucianism, but have already begun shifting toward individualism.
The Psycho-social Characteristics of Korean Adults: Collectivist and Moving toward Individualist
한국인의 대인관계의 심리사회적 특성: 집단주의적 성향과 개인주의적 성향으로의 변화
QUESTION
What are the psycho-social characteristics of Koreans' interpersonal relationships, examined through history, theory, and empirical research from a collectivism–individualism perspective?
FINDINGS
The Confucian tradition, which taught human relationships as the highest virtue, gave Korea's collectivist culture its philosophical framework and norms.
인간관계를 가장 중요한 덕목으로 가르쳐온 유교적
전통은 비교문화심리학에서 설정한 집단주의 문화의
철학적 기틀과 문화적 규범을 제공해 주었다고 해석
될 수 있다The Confucian tradition, which taught interpersonal relationships as the most important virtue, can be interpreted as having provided the philosophical framework and cultural norms of the collectivist culture defined in cross-cultural psychology.p12Korean university alumni association bylaws put friendship among members first, while American ones mainly aim to support the alma mater.
한국의 대학교 동창회 모임의 목적의 공통점은 동
장희 회원 상호간의 친목 도모를 최우선으로 한다는
점이다What Korean university alumni associations' stated purposes have in common is that they put fostering friendship among members first.p10미국의 대학교 동창회의 목적과 그 조직이 수행하는 사업들은 지적 및 재정적으로 모교의 발전을 후원하는 것이다The purpose of American university alumni associations and the activities they carry out are to support the alma mater's development intellectually and financially.p10A recent survey of adult men and women shows Korean culture moving from vertical collectivism toward horizontal individualism.
한국의 문화가 전통적으로 수직-집단주의에서
수평-개인주의로 변화되고 있음을 보여주는 것이다…shows that Korean culture is changing from its traditional vertical collectivism to horizontal individualism.p12한규석과 신수진(1999)은 성인 남녀 848명을Han Kyu-seok and Shin Su-jin (1999) [surveyed] 848 adult men and women…p11The author concludes that Korean society is already changing from traditional collectivism toward a more individualist and progressive direction.
이미 한국의 사회가 전통적인 집단
주의적 성향에서 개인주의적이고 진보적인 방향으로
변화가 일어나고 있다고 결론을 내렸다…concluded that Korean society is already changing from its traditional collectivist orientation toward an individualist and progressive direction.p14IN DAILY LIFE
Koreans often say "uri manura" (우리 마누라, literally "our wife") for "my wife" — translated literally, a Westerner might wrongly conclude that Korea practices polyandry.
말을 영어로 직역하면 'our wtfi구가 되기 때문에 서양
사람들은 한국의 가족제도가 일처다부제인 것으로 오
해할 수 있을 것이다…translated literally into English it becomes 'our wife,' so Westerners might misunderstand Korea's family system as polyandry.p6한국에서는 흔히 '우리 가누라'라고 말하지만In Korea people commonly say "uri manura" (our wife), but…p6A Chicago Korean business directory listed contact details for alumni associations of Korean universities and middle/high schools at the very front, before the business listings.
지역의 대학교 동창회 37개와 중• 고등학교 동창회
47개의 연락처를 소개하고 있다…introduces the contacts of 37 university alumni associations and 47 middle and high school alumni associations in the area.p10업소별 안내를 하기 전에 주요기관을 소개하는 가장 앞부분에 시카고…before the business-by-business listings, at the very front where major institutions are introduced, [it lists] Chicago…p10In depth
This paper, more closely — every sentence carries an original quote and page number.
Background
The realization that principles and findings of American-centered psychology do not hold for every culture led to the rise of cross-cultural psychology.
리학의 원리와 연구결과들이 모든 문화와 사람들에게
보편성을 가지지 못하고…the principles and findings of psychology do not have universality across all cultures and people…p2미국을 중심으로 한 심리학 연구의 결과가 다른 국가나 사회에서도 적용될 것인가에 대한 회의는Doubt about whether the results of US-centered psychological research would apply in other countries and societies…p2인간의 심리에 대한 보편성과 문화에 따른 특수성을 탐구하는 영역이 비교문화심리학…the field exploring the universality of human psychology and its cultural specificity, cross-cultural psychology, [became established].p2Korea is usually classified as a typical collectivist culture, but after undergoing more rapid social change in the 20th century than perhaps any other country, its values and norms are changing too.
20세기에 들어 어느 나라보다 급격한 사회의 변화를
경험하면서…having experienced more rapid social change than any other country in the 20th century…p2전형적인 집단주의로 분류하고 미국을 비롯한 서구의 문화를 개인주의 문화로 분류하여…classify [Korean culture] as typically collectivist and Western cultures including the US as individualist…p2행동규법을 포함하여 문화적 규범이 변화하고 있다고 본다…[we] see cultural norms, including norms of behavior, as changing.p2Method
A literature review covering, in turn, the historical roots of Korean relationships (Joseon-era communities), cross-cultural research on collectivism and on "uri" (우리, we), and empirical studies of Koreans' collectivist tendencies.
한국과 미국의 대학교 동창회가 회칙 중에서 목적
(mission 또는 purpose)을 서로 비교하여 보았다…compared the purpose (mission or purpose) in the bylaws of Korean and American university alumni associations.p10먼지 우리의 역사 속에서 오늘날 우리의 인간관계의 근원을 찾고자 하였다First, we sought the origins of today's relationships in our history.p2다음으로 최근 비교문화심리학적 연구에서 집단주의와 '우리재 관한 연구결과를 검토하였다Next, we reviewed findings on collectivism and "uri" from recent cross-cultural psychological research.p2이 강하다는 것을 입증하는 경험적 연구 결과를 정리하였다…summarized empirical findings demonstrating that [Koreans' relationships are strongly collectivist].p2각 대학교 동창회의 회칙의 목적 조항은 홈페이지에 수록된 것을 기준으로 하였다The purpose clauses of each university alumni association's bylaws were taken from those posted on their websites.p10개인주의 문화의 동창회의 내면을 비교하기 위하여To compare the inner nature of alumni associations in [collectivist and] individualist cultures…p10Detailed findings
Joseon-era yangban (aristocratic) organizations were built on filial piety (hyo, 효) and loyalty (chung, 충) — an extension of relationships within the family.
이들의 관계가 가족 공등체의 인간관계가 연
장된 것이라는 점이다…the point that their relationships were an extension of the relationships of the family community.p4조선시대의 양반계층의 조직인 족계와 향안에서 볼 수 있는 것은 구성원들인 양반들이 유교적 가치체계인 효와 충을 바탕으로What can be seen in jokgye and hyangan, the organizations of the Joseon yangban class, is that their yangban members, on the basis of the Confucian values of filial piety and loyalty…p4Commoners, unable to form large extended families, valued neighbors over family and clan and organized chongye (촌계) and dure (두레) to help one another — and in these communities too a collectivist emphasis on group harmony appears.
피지배층의 평민들은 가족과 문중보다
이웃을 더 소중하게 생각하는 것에서 그들의 인간관
계의 뿌리를 찾을 수 있디…the roots of commoners' relationships can be found in valuing neighbors more than family and clan.p4지배층과 같은 대가족을 구성할 수 없었기…because they could not form large families like the ruling class…p4촌계와 두레를 조직하여 협동노동조직과 경제적 상호부조를 하였었다…organized chongye and dure for cooperative labor and economic mutual aid.p4평민들의 공동체의 구성원들의 인간관계도 집단의 조화를 강조하는 집단주의의 경향을 발견할 수 있다…in the relationships among members of commoners' communities, too, a collectivist tendency emphasizing group harmony can be found.p5In a 1989 survey, large shares of Buddhists, Protestants, Catholics, and the non-religious alike said they had Confucian leanings — suggesting that, regardless of religion, Confucian remnants persist in about 70% of Koreans.
사람들의 70% 정도가 자신의 종교와 관계없이 자신
의 생각이나 행동규법에 유교적 잔재가 여전히 있음
을 시사하고 있다…suggests that about 70% of Koreans, regardless of their religion, still have Confucian remnants in their thinking and norms of behavior.p3한국갤럽연구소(1990)의 조사에서 분명하게 드러나고 있다. 1989년에 실시한 이 조사에 따르면…is clearly shown in a Korea Gallup (1990) survey. According to this survey, conducted in 1989…p3불교신자의 7296, 개신교 63%, 천주교 61% 그리고 종교가 없는 사람들의 70%는 본인이 유교적 성향을 지니고 있다고 하였다…72% of Buddhists, 63% of Protestants, 61% of Catholics, and 70% of those with no religion said they themselves had Confucian leanings.p3What Korean students most often associated with the word "uri" (우리, we) was emotional bonding — jeong (정), closeness, coziness (55%).
'우리'와 연상되는 반응 중에서 가장 많은 것은
감정적 연대감으로 55%이었고The most common response associated with 'uri' was emotional solidarity, at 55%…p6대학생을 상대로 '우리'와 연관된 다양한 사고와 경험을 조사하였다…surveyed university students about the various thoughts and experiences they associate with "uri."p6이는 '정', '친밀감', '푸근함', 그리고 '상호수용'의 반응이었다These were responses such as "jeong," "intimacy," "comfort," and "mutual acceptance."p6Canadian students, by contrast, saw "we" not as an emotional bond but as a gathering of independent individuals or people with shared tastes.
캐나다의 대학생들은 '우리'를 정서적인
관계로 느끼기보다 각기 독립적인 개인의 모임이나
같은 취향의 사람들이 모이는 것으로 인식하는 것으
로 해석된다Canadian students are interpreted as perceiving 'we' not as an emotional relationship but as a gathering of independent individuals or of people with the same tastes.p6Both male and female production workers and managers at large factories preferred the "equity principle" — pay according to each person's relationships and quality of task performance; this was offered as a sign of a shift toward individualism.
생산직 근로자와 관리직 종사자 모두가 선호하는 분
배원리는 형평원리이었다…the distribution principle preferred by production workers and managers alike was the equity principle.p11종업원 1,000명 이상의 대규모 공장에서 일하는 근로자와 관리직…workers and managers at large factories with over 1,000 employees…p11남자와 여자 생산직 근로자와 관리직 종사자 모두가 선호하는…preferred by male and female production workers and managers alike…p11각자의 인간관계와 과제수행의 질에 따라서 보수를 받기를 원하였다…wanted to be paid according to each person's relationships and quality of task performance.p11이들의 대인관계의 태도와 가치지향이 개인주의적 성향으로 변해가고 있음은 분명하다고 해석된…it is interpreted as clear that their interpersonal attitudes and value orientations are shifting toward individualism.p11The older people were, the stronger their collectivism; the more educated, the weaker.
연령이 높을수록 집단주의 경향이 높았고, 교
육수준이 높을수록 집단주의 경향이 낮았다The older the age, the higher the collectivist tendency; the higher the education level, the lower the collectivist tendency.p12One earlier study concluded that Korean-style individualism leans more toward putting oneself first and seeking convenience than toward the true form of individualism, which also respects others' rights.
자기지상주의와 자기편의
성의 추구에 더욱 관심을 쏟고 있다…is more concerned with pursuing self-supremacy and self-convenience.p11자신의 권익이 중요한 만큼 남의 권익도 존중되어야 하는 개인주의 진면보다는…rather than the true face of individualism, in which others' rights must be respected as much as one's own…p11Authors’ interpretation
Applying findings that nations become more individualist as they grow richer, the author sees the rise of individualism in Korea as a natural development.
경제발전과 개인주의의 관계를 우리사희에 결
부시킨다면 개인주의 성향의 출현은 자연스러운 추론
이 될 것이다If we connect the relationship between economic development and individualism to our society, the emergence of individualist tendencies becomes a natural inference.p13국민소득이 높아지면 개인주의로 변화하는 것으로 결론을 지었다…concluded that as national income rises, [a country] changes toward individualism.p13The author cites the explanation that while preparing food once required two or more people working together, as with a foot-pounded mill (didilbanga, 디딜방아), electronic appliances now let one person do it alone — so individualist values can emerge.
먹거리를 장만하기 위하여 과거에는 디딜방아
와 같이 두 사람 이상이 협력해야만 되는 과정이 필
수적이었으나In the past, to prepare food, a process requiring two or more people to cooperate, such as with a foot-operated mill, was essential…p13첨단의 전자제품은 혼자서 충분히 할 수 있도록 생활 여건을 변화시켰다…state-of-the-art appliances have changed living conditions so that one person can do it alone.p13새로운 생태계에 적응하는 가치로서 개인주의적 가치가 나타날 수 있다고 설명하였다…explained that individualist values can emerge as values adapted to a new ecology.p13Alumni associations still embody Korean cultural norms, but horizontal thinking, individualist values, and the rise of future-oriented communities such as PC-network clubs call attention to social change.
PC동호회와 같은 과거에는 생
각할 수도 없었던 미래 지향적인 공동생활의 출현은
우리에게 사회변화에 관심을 쏠리게 한다…the emergence of future-oriented communal life, such as PC clubs that were once unimaginable, draws our attention to social change.p13특히 동창회의 조직과 기능은 한국의 문화적 규범을 전형적으로 담고 있는 공동생활이라고 판단된다In particular, the organization and function of alumni associations are judged to be a form of group life that typically embodies Korean cultural norms.p13수평적 사고의 선호와 개인주의적 가치관의 생성과…the preference for horizontal thinking, the emergence of individualist values, and…p13Limits the authors note
Studies showing individualism in Korean society have not yet been carried out in large numbers across many topics and variables.
아직까지 여러 가지 주제
와 변인에 대하여 많은 수의 연구가 이루어지지는 않
았지만…although many studies have not yet been carried out on various topics and variables…p12The study finding that workers prefer the equity principle did not directly compare respondents from an individualist culture, which limits its interpretation.
이 연구가 개인주의 문화의 조사대상
자와 직접 비교되지 않아서 해석에 제한이 있기는 하
지만…although this study is limited in interpretation because it was not directly compared with respondents from an individualist culture…p11한국의 직장인들이 형평원리를 선호하는 것으로 보아…given that Korean workers prefer the equity principle…p11Key terms
Involuntary group (비자발적 집단) A group whose membership comes automatically, without choosing to join — e.g., you become a member of an alumni association the moment you graduate.
졸업과 동시에 자동적으로 가입되어 별도의 노력 없
이도 희원자격이 취득되는 전형적인 비자발적 집단…a typical involuntary group, in which one joins automatically upon graduation and gains membership without any separate effort.p9Dure (두레) A kind of work community formed by Joseon-era commoners out of mutual need; the name carries the meaning "all around, everyone, the whole."
두레는- 일종의 작업공동체로서 두루, 모두
그리고 전체라는 의미를 가진다고 하였다Dure is a kind of work community, carrying the meaning of 'all around, everyone, and the whole.'p4평민들이 서로의 필요에 의해서 형성된 것이 두레이다Dure was formed by commoners out of their mutual needs.p4Planned social change (계획적 사회변화) Unlike unplanned change in which society shifts on its own, social change that someone deliberately brings about.
누군가에
의하여 의도적으로 사회의 번화가 창출되는 경우를…the case in which social change is intentionally created by someone…p13사회의 변화를 사회가 자발적으로 변하는 것을 비계획적 사회변화…call social change in which society changes on its own unplanned social change…p13