A literature review showing that social psychology theories born in Western individualist cultures — on exchange, emotional expression, motives, self-presentation and more — do not simply fit Korea, with proposals for how Korean social psychology should be studied.
The Cultural Specificity of Social Psychological Theories: Toward a Social Psychology of Koreans
사회심리학 이론의 문화특수성: 한국인의 사회심리학 연구를 위한 고찰
QUESTION
How do exchange, emotional expression, social motives, self-presentation, social comparison, attributional biases and the drive for cognitive consistency differ across cultures, and what should research on Korean social psychology take into account?
FINDINGS
Korean university students rated people who split rewards equally more favorably than those who split them by contribution (citing a study by Leung and Park).
한국인들은 균큐리를 쓰는 분배자를 형평원리를 쓰는 문배자보다 더욱 호의적으로 평가힘을 발견했다.…found that Koreans evaluated allocators who used the equality principle more favorably than allocators who used the equity principle.p2이국과 한국의 대학 생을 대상으로 부매행위를 연구한 Leung과 Park (1986)은Leung and Park (1986), who studied allocation behavior among American and Korean university studentsp2When sixth-graders who had contributed more were asked to divide 10 candies, 75.4% chose to split them equally (a cited study).
을 때 천체의 75.4%가 균등-일리를 재택하였다…when [given the scenario], 75.4% of all [children] adopted the equality principle.p3최근에 국민학교 6학년을 대상으로 자신의 기여가 높은 상황을 제시하고 사당 10개를 분배하는 각본을 제시했recently, sixth-grade elementary students were given a scenario in which their own contribution was high and asked to divide 10 candiesp3In Korean culture, outward expression of strong emotion has been heavily restrained, and the author sees inner feelings left to ferment inside as having condensed into han (한).
이같은 논의와 관련시켜 우리 문화의 특성을 보면 강 한 정서의 의적표현은 매우 억제되었다고 볼 수 있다.Looking at the characteristics of our culture in light of this discussion, the outward expression of strong emotion can be said to have been greatly suppressed.p5내부에서 곰삭이는 것이 장려되었고2) 이것은 우리민족의 특특한 정서라고 여겨지는 '한으로 응축된 것으로 여겨진다letting feelings ferment inside was encouraged, and this is thought to have condensed into han, regarded as a distinctive emotion of our peoplep5The author argues that, in Korea, gyeomyang (겸양, modesty that fits relative status) explains interpersonal relations better than the Western notion of “politeness.”
포괄적인 의미로서는 “겸양”이 적절하다고 보겠다…in its comprehensive sense, “gyeomyang” (modesty) would be the appropriate [concept].p9한국 문화권에서는 “공손”이란 7닡으림 드러난 행위만을 뜻한다는 청에서 포괄척인 사회현상을 설명하는 개념으로서는 부적절하 미in Korean culture, since 'politeness' refers only to outwardly visible behavior, it is inadequate as a concept to explain broad social phenomenap9상대적 지위를 규정하므로써 서열을 정하고 그 A니열의 차이여 걸맞는 공손함을 취할 때when people define relative status to set a ranking and adopt politeness fitting that difference in rankp9Research on Korean social psychology should distinguish the cultural meanings of Western concepts, run replications that reflect cultural differences, and pay attention to indigenous phenomena.
마지막으로 우리는 한국사회의 토착척 현상의 연구에 깊은 관심을 기울일 필요가 있다.Finally, we need to pay deep attention to the study of indigenous phenomena in Korean society.p16첫째로 생활현상의 심리학적 연구시 현상이 갖는 문 화권적 의미를 명확히 구분해야 한다first, when studying everyday phenomena psychologically, the cultural meaning of the phenomenon must be clearly distinguishedp15둘째로 서구의 심리학의 “기본적” 발견들에 대해서 철거한 실중적 복제를 시도하되second, thorough empirical replications of Western psychology's 'basic' findings should be attemptedp15IN DAILY LIFE
Two people can sit pressed side by side on an express bus for hours without exchanging a word.
고속버스에서 오랫동안 옆구리를 서로 불이고 기는 상 횡에서도 두사람간의 대화가 없는 것이 한국의 실정이It is the reality in Korea that even when two people sit with their sides pressed together on an express bus for a long time, there is no conversation between them…p7At a banquet where guests barely know each other, hosts must seat people with their own circles for the party to be lively.
잘 모르는 사람•들이 모여드는 연회장에서도 주최측 은 끼리끼리 사람들을 앉혀야만 연회가 홍겹게 진행되Even at a banquet hall where people who don’t know each other well gather, the hosts must seat people with their own kind for the banquet to go merrily…p7Even in a good mood, a smile is appropriate; laughing loudly is seen as “breaking one’s face.”
홍소(笑)나 대소(大笑)를 하 는 것은 “얼굴을 깬 다”…laughing loudly or roaring with laughter is “breaking one’s face”…p5기 문이 좋을 때 우리는 미소(″)를 띠는 것이 적절하 며when in a good mood, it is appropriate for us to smilep5In depth
This paper, more closely — every sentence carries an original quote and page number.
Background
The paper starts from the concern that social psychology’s theories carry the particular traits of Western individualist culture, yet are applied unchanged to explain Korean phenomena.
사회심리학이 다루는 현상 및 이른들이 서구의 개인주의 문화권의 특수성을 그대로 지니고 있음에도 불구하고Although the phenomena and theories that social psychology deals with retain the particularities of Western individualist culture…p1우리문회권의 현h十우 설명하는데 그대로 적용되는 것은 잘못이다it is wrong to apply them as-is to explain phenomena in our culturep1The author points out that theories valid only within a particular culture are being wrongly applied as if they held across all cultures.
국한되어 적용되어야 할 이론들이 범문화권적 그 그릇 적용되는 오류를 법하고 있다…[we] commit the error of wrongly applying, across cultures, theories that should be applied only within [a particular culture].p2Method
A literature review that examines related studies.
본고는 한국인의 사회심리가 갖는 독특성을 연구해야 한다는 당위성을 구체화하고 연구방법에 대한 제안을 하기 위한 문헌고찰이다This paper is a literature review intended to make concrete the case for studying the distinctiveness of Koreans’ social psychology and to propose research methods.p2본고는 교환현상, 정서표현, 사회책 동기의 발현, 자기제시현상, 사회ul 교. 귀인의 편향, 인지일관성 동기의 제 현상이 어떻게 문화원마다 다르게 나타날 수 있는지를this paper [examines] how phenomena of exchange, emotional expression, social motives, self-presentation, social comparison, attributional bias, and cognitive-consistency motives can differ across culturesp1마지막으로 한국인의 사회심리쳑 특성을 이해하기 위한 연구가 고려해야 할 접을 제언하였다and finally suggests points that research to understand Koreans' social-psychological traits should considerp1Detailed findings
In a study comparing American, Japanese, and Korean university students, Korean students reflected differences in contribution less. The author takes this to suggest that factors other than contribution also matter in deciding rewards.
한국의 대학생들은 기여도의 차이를 반영하는 정도가 일본이나 미국에 비해 덜 심한 것으린 나타나고 있다Korean university students were shown to reflect differences in contribution less strongly than Japanese or Americans.p3유사한 연구절치를 적용하여 미국, 일본, 한국의 대학생들이 주인공에게 내리는 평가를 분석한 연구a study applying a similar procedure that analyzed the evaluations American, Japanese, and Korean university students gave the protagonistp3이는 우리 문화권에서 보상을 결정짓는 요인은 기여도 이의의 다 른 요인도 중요하게 작용함을 시사한다this suggests that in our culture, factors other than contribution also play an important role in determining rewardsp3In a study of elementary schoolchildren, a character who took rewards in proportion to contribution (“equity”) was seen as calculating, unfair and selfish.
형평원리를 택한 각본 의 주인공은 약삭빠르리 불공평하고, 자신만 아는The protagonist of the scenario who chose the equity principle [was perceived as] calculating, unfair, and self-centered…p3최근에 국민학교 6학년을 대상으로 자신의 기여가 높은 상황을 제시하고recently, sixth-grade elementary students were given a situation in which their own contribution was highp3형평원리 (기여한 만 큼셱 차지하기)와 균등일리 (기여도와 무관하게 똑같이 차지하기)the equity principle (taking as much as one contributed) and the equality principle (taking the same regardless of contribution)p2Achievement motivation is strong in relationship-oriented cultures too, but it is often more about the success of one's in-group or living up to the expectations of family and others around one than about oneself.
나의 성취를 위함이라기 보다 내집단의 성취를 위함이거나…rather than for my own achievement, it is for the in-group’s achievement…p6이같이 관계 문화권에서도 강하게 나 타나는 성취동기는achievement motivation, which appears strongly in relational cultures as wellp6주위 (특히 내가족 의 기대에 부용하려고 애쓰는 면이 많음을 지적할 수 있다it can be pointed out that it often involves trying to meet the expectations of those around one (especially one's family)p6Koreans put far more effort into maintaining existing relationships than into building new ones with strangers.
한국인들은 낯선 타인 과의 관계를 진천시키는 것에 쓰는 관심보다 월껜 많은 관심을 기존관계의 유지에 쏟는다Koreans devote far more attention to maintaining existing relationships than to developing relationships with unfamiliar others.p7Chemyeon (체면, face) is not something everyone cares about; it is chiefly a concern of people with high status and rank.
체면은 누구나가 다 관심을 갖는 것이 아니라 지위, 심-분이 높은 사람이 큰 관심을 갖고 있는 현상이다Chemyeon is not something everyone cares about; it is a phenomenon that people of high status and rank care greatly about.p9In the West, face is maintained by one’s own actions; in Korea, chemyeon is upheld when subordinates around a person “serve him without being told.”
주위의 아랫사람들이 “알아서 모시는” 행위에 의 해서 세워지는데…is upheld by the behavior of subordinates around [him] who “serve [him] without being told”…p10행위자의 명시 적인 행위에 의해서 지키고자(또는 세우고자) 하는 자 신의 면모가 유지되는 것이다the face one seeks to protect (or build) is maintained through the actor's own explicit behaviorp10Doubt has been raised that the fundamental attribution error — blaming others’ behavior on their personality — may be particular to individualist cultures rather than universal.
그러나 이 FAE가 개인주의 문화 에 특수한 현상일 수 있다는 의문이 제기되었다However, doubt has been raised that this FAE may be a phenomenon specific to individualist culture.p11사람들은 타 인의 행동을 행위자의 성격, 특성, 책임등으로 내 귀인 시킨다는 주장이다the claim that people attribute others' behavior internally to the actor's personality, traits, and responsibilityp11In relationship-centered cultures, where self-esteem comes from getting along with and being respected by others, modesty about one’s successes may be the natural response.
관계 문화 권에서는 겸양현상이 오히려 자연스러운 현상일 수 있 다…in relational cultures, the modesty phenomenon may rather be natural.p13자존심의 근거가 개인주의 문회에서 스스로 의 능력의 탁월성에 있는 것이 아니라 주위와 얼마나 잘 조회를 이루며 존경받고 시는 것이라면if the basis of self-esteem lies not in the excellence of one's own ability, as in individualist culture, but in how well one lives in harmony with and respected by those around onep13아시아계는 겸양 현상 (성공-운, 실패-내탓)을 보였다the Asian group showed modesty (success to luck, failure to oneself)p12Authors’ interpretation
Above all, researchers studying an everyday phenomenon must clearly distinguish what that phenomenon means in each culture.
생활현상의 심리학적 연구시 현상이 갖는 문 화권적 의미를 명확히 구분해야 한다In psychological research on everyday phenomena, the cultural meaning of the phenomenon must be clearly distinguished.p15When re-testing Western “basic” findings in Korea, replications should add situations in which cultural differences can show up.
문화의 차이가 반영될 수 있는 상향을 추가로 도입해서 복제연구를 해야 할…[we] should conduct replication studies that additionally introduce situations in which cultural differences can be reflected.p15둘째로 서구의 심리학의 “기본적” 발견들에 대해서 철거한 실중적 복제를 시도하되second, thorough empirical replications of Western psychology's 'basic' findings should be attemptedp15As an example of indigenous research, the author cites work showing that the Korean uri (우리, “we”) differs fundamentally from the Western “we,” and says concepts like jeong (정) deserve close attention.
한국에서 「우리」가 갖는 의미가 서구에서의 「We」와는 본질적으로 다름을…that the meaning of “uri” in Korea is essentially different from “We” in the West…p14「우리」의 근처에 있는 심리척 표상은 「청」으로the psychological representation underlying 'uri' is jeongp14사회적으로 중요한 대인 교류현상올 설형하기 위한 중요한 개년으로서 사회십리 학자들이 주목할 가치가 매우 크다as an important concept for explaining socially important interpersonal phenomena, it is well worth social psychologists' attentionp15Limits the authors note
The author notes that findings on weaker self-serving bias in relational cultures are mixed, so cultural differences cannot yet be stated firmly.
현재로서는 자기고양편 파의 발현에 대한 문화권 차이는 단정적이지 못하며At present, cultural differences in the occurrence of self-serving bias are not conclusive…p12아시아계는 겸양 현상 (성공-운, 실패-내탓)을 보였다the Asian group showed modesty (success to luck, failure to oneself)p12학부모와 아동을 대상으로 한 연구들과 는대ess 등, 1987) 달리 나은 결과들은results that came out differently from studies of parents and childrenp12Key terms
Equity principle and equality principle Equity means taking as much as you contributed; equality means splitting the same amount regardless of contribution.
형평원리 (기여한 만 큼셱 차지하기)와 균등일리 (기여도와 무관하게 똑같이 차지하기)the equity principle (taking as much as one contributed) and the equality principle (taking the same regardless of contribution)p2Socially oriented achievement motivation A drive to meet standards set by one’s in-group, such as the family, in order to live up to its expectations — rather than one’s own inner standards.
사회지항적 성취동기는 가족등의 대집 단의 기대에 부용하기 위하여 내집단이 설정한 표준을 달성하려고 애쓰는 욕구를 말한다Socially oriented achievement motivation refers to the desire to strive to attain standards set by the in-group in order to meet the expectations of in-groups such as the family.p6개인 지향적 성취동기는 개인이 자신의 내적 표준을 달성하기 위하여 애쓰는individual-oriented achievement motivation is [the need] of a person striving to meet their own internal standardsp6Gyeomyang (겸양, modesty) Unlike Western “politeness,” it means settling each other’s relative status into a rank order and showing the courtesy that fits that difference.
상대적 지위를 규정하므로써 서열을 정하고 그 A니열의 차이여 걸맞는 공손함을 취할 때…when [people] define relative status to set a rank order and adopt politeness befitting the difference in rank…p9한국 문화권에서는 “공손”이란 7닡으림 드러난 행위만을 뜻한다는 청에서 포괄척인 사회현상을 설명하는 개념으로서는 부적절하 미in Korean culture, since 'politeness' refers only to outwardly visible behavior, it is inadequate as a concept to explain broad social phenomenap9