Comparing Korean and Japanese films about funerals, the study shows both portray funerals as tied to the lives of the living, but Korea leans on filial piety (hyo, 효) and reconciliation, Japan on rebirth in the Pure Land (ōjō, 往生) and reflection.
A Cross-Cultural Study on the Viewpoint of Life and Death in Popular Culture of Korea and Japan: With Special References to the Films on Funeral Rites
한일 양국의 대중문화에 나타난 사생관에 대한 비교문화적 연구 - 장례식 소재 영화를 중심으로 -
QUESTION
How do Korean and Japanese funeral films portray the view of life and death (sasaenggwan, 사생관), and what clues do they offer for understanding the spirituality of the two peoples?
FINDINGS
Films in both countries portray the funeral not as a rite for the dead alone, but as one deeply bound up with the lives of those left behind.
장례식이 단순히 망자와 관련 되는 의식에 그치지 않고, 살아남은 자들의 삶과 깊은 연관을 지니는 의 식(儀式)으로 묘사되고 있다는 점이다…that the funeral is portrayed not merely as a rite concerning the deceased, but as a ritual deeply connected with the lives of the survivors.p20There is a subtle difference: the funeral in Festival (Chukje, 축제) works as a dynamic moment leading to reconciliation (“movement”), while in Ikiru (To Live) it works as a moment for reflection (“stillness”).
영화 <축제>에서 장례식이 화해를 이끄는 역동적 계기로 작동한 것에 비하여, 영화 <산다>에서 장례식이 성찰의 계기로 작동한 것Whereas the funeral in <Festival> works as a dynamic moment leading to reconciliation, the funeral in <Ikiru> works as a moment of reflection.p20동(動),과 '정(靜)'의 흐름이지니는 미묘한 차이…the subtle difference in the flow of 'movement (動)' and 'stillness (靜)'p20Korean funeral culture emphasizes filial piety (hyo, 효, 孝), while Japanese funeral culture emphasizes ōjō (往生) — passing on to rebirth in the Pure Land.
한국의 장례문화에서 효(孝)의 개념이 중시된다면, 일본의 장례문화에서는 왕생(往生)의 개념이 강조되고 있다If the concept of filial piety (孝) is valued in Korean funeral culture, the concept of ōjō (往生) is emphasized in Japanese funeral culture.p20Though not yet clear, Korean films tend to stress the deceased’s private network of ties, while Japanese films relatively stress the public network.
한국의 장례식 소재 영화에서 망자와의 사적 (私的)인 연망(連網)이 강조되는 경향이 강하다면If in Korean funeral films the private (私的) network of ties with the deceased tends to be strongly emphasized…p21아직 분명하지는 않지만, 한국의 장례식 소재 영화에서 망자와의Though not yet clear, in Korean funeral films … with the deceasedp21일본의 장례식 소재영화에서는 상대적으로 공적(/公的)인 연망이 중시되는 경향이 있다…in Japanese funeral films the public (公的) network tends to be relatively valued.p21IN DAILY LIFE
As the coffin leaves the room, a gourd bowl on the threshold is smashed on the count of “one, two, three” — so the spirit of the deceased will not come back into the room.
망자의 영혼이 다시 방 안으로 들어오지 않게 바가지를 깬 다The gourd bowl is broken so that the spirit of the deceased does not come back into the room.p8관이 방에서 나간다. '하나, 들, 셋,에 맞추어 문지방에 놓인바가지를 깬다The coffin leaves the room. On 'one, two, three,' the gourd bowl placed on the threshold is broken.p8A conversation at the funeral: since the simplified family-rites code, weddings end in ten minutes, and instead of three years of mourning people take off mourning clothes after the third-day rite or, at most, after one year.
삼우제 지내고 복 벗는 사람도 있고 길게 가야 1년 탈상 이면 잘 치룬 거제Some take off mourning clothes after the third-day memorial rite, and if it goes long, ending mourning after one year counts as doing it well.p11가정의례준칙 간소환지 지랄인가가 모든 예법을 허물어 갖고 혼례는 10분만에 끝내 버리괴 장례가 송장 갖다 버리는 절차로 전락해 버렸고That damned simplified family-rites code tore down every rite: weddings are over in 10 minutes, funerals have sunk into a procedure for dumping a corpse…p11원래 제대로 할라면이야 삼 년 탈상이 원칙이지만Properly done, three years of mourning is the rule, but…p11In depth
This paper, more closely — every sentence carries an original quote and page number.
Background
Films reflect the worldview of the public of their time, and funerals directly reveal how people think about life and death — so the author focused on films that deal with funerals.
영화는 당대(contemporary) 대 중의 세계관을 투영하는 대표적인 매체이며Film is a representative medium that projects the worldview of the contemporary public…p1장례식은 삶과 죽음에 대한인식을 직접적으로 반영하는 소재로 여겨지기 때문이다…because funerals are seen as a subject that directly reflects perceptions of life and death.p1The spread of the Korean Wave (Hallyu, 한류) in Japan raises the need for such cross-cultural research, which can help each side reflect on itself and understand the other more deeply.
현재 일 본에서 확산 일로에 있는 한류(翰朮) 현상은 본 연구와 같은 비교문화적 연구의 필요성을 제기하고 있다The Korean Wave phenomenon, which is currently spreading in Japan, raises the need for cross-cultural research such as this study.p4스스로의 정체성에 대한 성찰의 기회를 가지는 한편, 상대를 보다 심도 있게 이해할 수 있는 토대를 구축할 수 있을 것이다…we can gain a chance to reflect on our own identity while building a foundation for understanding the other more deeply.p4Method
The author compared Korean and Japanese funeral films, examining their “structural similarity” and the “subtle differences” in detailed portrayal and the meaning given.
구로사와 아키라 감독의 <산다>와 임권택 감독의 <축 제>를 일차적인 분석 대상으로 삼과…taking director Kurosawa Akira’s <Ikiru> and director Im Kwon-taek’s <Festival> as the primary objects of analysis…p3구조적 유사성을 지니는 한편, 세부적 묘사와 의미 부여 및 그 과정에 있어서는 미묘한 차이도 나타내고있다…share a structural similarity, while also showing subtle differences in detailed portrayal, the meaning given, and its process.p3필요에 따라 <학생부군신위>, <장례식> 등 여타 영화들에 대해서도 언급하고자 한다…and, as needed, to discuss other films such as <Hakseng bugun sinwi> and <The Funeral>.p3영화<축제>에서 동화가 지니는 주제적 중요성을 반증하는 것이기도 하다…also attests to the thematic importance of the fairy tale in <Festival>.p12본 논문에서 특별히 주목하고자 하는 부분은 와타나베의 죽음 이후의상황이다What this paper particularly focuses on is the situation after Watanabe’s death.p17Detailed findings
Festival records each step of the funeral as if writing an ethnography, so thoroughly that the funeral scenes alone could be edited into a documentary.
절차 하나하나를 마치 민족지(民族纛 ethnography)를 기술하듯 카메라에 담아내고 있다…captures each procedure on camera as if describing an ethnography.p7장례식 장면만 별도로 편집한다면 매우 훌륭한 한 편의상장례 다큐멘터리가 될 수 있을 것이다If the funeral scenes alone were edited separately, they could make an excellent documentary on funeral rites.p7Festival shows a southern-region custom of holding a rite and play every two hours through the night; the director reads its purpose as easing the heavy mood of the house of mourning and the chief mourner’s grief.
초경부터 오경까지 두 시간마다 제사와 놀이를 하는 남도 지방 고유의 장례풍습A funeral custom unique to the southern region, with rites and play every two hours from the first watch to the fifth watch of the night.p8규정하면서, 그러한 의례 절차의 목적이 “상가의 슬프고…defining it so, [he reads] the purpose of the rite as [easing] 'the sad and…'p8무거운 분위기를 달래고 상주의 시름을 덜어"주려는 데에 있다고 해독하면서'…heavy mood of the house of mourning and relieving the chief mourner’s grief.'p9A dialogue in the film says that in Confucianism, filial piety while the parent lives is a precept, but after death it becomes religious — and the funeral is its most serious form.
살아서의 효는 계율이지만 중어서의 효는 종교 적 개념이 되는 거지Filial piety while alive is a precept, but filial piety after death becomes a religious concept.p10유교적 방식인 셈이지. 제사는 종교적효의 형식이고, 장례는 그중 ••• 가장 진지한 효도의 형식인 셈이야…it’s the Confucian way. Ancestral rites are the form of religious filial piety, and the funeral is… the most serious form of filial devotion among them.p10The final scene, where Yongsun — not yet accepted by the family — is called in to join the group photo after the funeral, can be read as a moment of reconciliation.
이 마지막 장면은 충분히 화해의 계기로서 포착될 수 있다This last scene can well be captured as a moment of reconciliation.p9이러한 용순이 가족으로부터 받아들여진 것은 장례식 절차가 모두 마무리되고 나서였다It was only after the funeral procedures were all finished that Yongsun was accepted by the family.p9용순은 화면 바깥쪽에 떨어져 있는 상태에서, 사진을 찍는 무리들과 합류하지 못하고 있었는데, 준섭(안성기 하이 그녀를 불러 함께 사진을 찍게 된 것이다Yongsun, standing apart at the edge of the frame, could not join the group being photographed, until Junseop (Ahn Sung-ki) called her over to be in the photo together.p9The core message of the fairy tale in Festival is that one generation’s death is linked to the next generation’s life — the grandmother grows smaller as she gives away her years.
한 세대의 죽음이 다른 세대의 생명과 고리 지워져 있다는 것이 이 동화의 핵심적인 메시지이다The core message of this fairy tale is that the death of one generation is linked to the life of another generation.p12할머니는 나이를 아빠나 엄마에게 나누어주느라 그만큼씩 작아졌음Grandma grew that much smaller by giving her years to Dad and Mom.p12In Ikiru, the talk at the wake starts as formal recollection but gradually broadens into critical reflection on bureaucracy, leading to the question “How should we live?”
시간이 흐를수록 망자에 대한 회상이 현실에 대한 비판적인 성 찰로 확산되기에 이른다As time passes, recollection of the deceased spreads into critical reflection on reality.p17처음에 형식적인 회상으로부터 시작되었지만…began with formal recollections, but…p17근대 관료주의에 대한 비판적 성찰의 단서를 찾기에 이른 것이다…came to find clues for critical reflection on modern bureaucracy.p17어떻게 살아가야하는가"에 대한 물음을 구성하는 계기를제공한 것이다…provided the occasion to pose the question 'how should one live?'p17The Funeral critically portrays formalized, secularized Japanese funeral culture — for example, a priest who arrives in a luxury car and cares more about his fee than the rite.
절차를 맡은 승려는 장례 집전보다 사례 비용에 더 관 심이 많다The priest in charge of the procedures is more interested in the fee than in conducting the funeral.p19현대 일본사회의장례문화에 관해서는, 형식화에 대한 비판과 함께Regarding funeral culture in modern Japanese society, along with criticism of formalization…p19영화 <장례식>에서 장례식을 집전하는 승려는 최고급 승용차를 타고 나타나며In <The Funeral>, the priest officiating the funeral shows up in a top-end luxury car…p18Authors’ interpretation
Festival shows a funeral centered on a Confucian worldview, The Funeral one centered on a Buddhist worldview, and the author sees this as revealing a difference in the two peoples’ views of life and death.
유교와 불교로 대비되는 세계관적 구조의 변별성에 대해 주목하지 않을 수 없다One cannot help but note the distinctiveness of the worldview structures contrasted as Confucianism and Buddhism.p20<축제>는 유교적 세계관이 중심이 되는 장례 절차를 민족지를 서술하듯 꼼꼼히 기록하고 있으며<Festival> carefully records funeral procedures centered on a Confucian worldview, as if writing an ethnography…p20영화 <장례식>에서는 불교적 세계관이 중심이 되는 장례 절차가소개되고 있다…in the film <The Funeral>, funeral procedures centered on a Buddhist worldview are presented.p20이러한 차이는 양국민의 사생관의 차이를드러내는 요인을 이루기도 한다This difference is also a factor revealing the difference in the two peoples’ views of life and death.p20Japanese people still call the journey to the afterlife ōjō and a corpse hotoke (Buddha), which the author attributes to the influence of Amida (Pure Land) belief on funerals.
일본불교의 아미타 신앙은 일본인들의 저승길을 돕겠다며 장례식에 간섭하였다The Amida faith of Japanese Buddhism intervened in funerals, saying it would help the Japanese on their way to the afterlife.p21지금도 일본인들은 저승길을 , 수罘(往生)'로 부르고, 주검을 '호토케(fL\)'라고 부른다Even now, Japanese people call the journey to the afterlife ōjō (往生) and a corpse 'hotoke.'p21The private/public network difference may help explain why, in similar stories of abandoning the elderly, Goryeojang ends with the mother brought back home while The Ballad of Narayama does not.
<고려장>은 <나라야마 부시步 와 달리 어머니를 끝내 버리지 못하고 다시 집으로 모셔오는 결말을 취 하였다Unlike <The Ballad of Narayama>, <Goryeojang> takes an ending in which the son cannot abandon his mother after all and brings her back home.p21이러한 차이는 한국영화 <고려장>(김기영 감독)과 일본영화 <나라야마 부시코>This difference [may offer a clue to] Korean film <Goryeojang> (dir. Kim Ki-young) and Japanese film <The Ballad of Narayama>…p21Limits the authors note
The author notes that Festival is a full funeral film while only the last third of Ikiru deals with a funeral, so a simple comparison of the two has limits.
<축제>와 <산다>의 단순 비교 만으로는 본 논문의 문제의식을 충분하게 천착하는 데 일정한 한계가 따를 수밖에 없다A simple comparison of <Festival> and <Ikiru> alone inevitably has certain limits in fully exploring this paper’s concerns.p3일본 영화 <산다>는 후반 1/3만이 장례식 소재 영화로 정의할 만 하다…only the last 1/3 of the Japanese film <Ikiru> can be defined as a funeral film.p3A comparison of the views of life and death in Goryeojang and The Ballad of Narayama is left for future work.
<고려장>과 <나라야마 부시코>에 나타난 사생관에 대한 비교연 구는 후일의 과제로 남겨두고자 한다A comparative study of the views of life and death in <Goryeojang> and <The Ballad of Narayama> is left as a task for later.p21Key terms
Sasaenggwan (사생관, 死生觀) A view of life and death taken together, focusing on how ideas about death and ideas about life are linked to each other.
사생관에 대한 탐구는 죽음에 대한 인식과 삶에 대한 인식 이 서로 고리 지워진 것이라는 점에 주목하려는 의도를 내포하고 있다Exploring the view of life and death implies an intention to focus on the fact that the perception of death and the perception of life are linked to each other.p2Gobok and chohon (고복·초혼) A rite of calling back the soul that has left the body, in the hope of reviving the deceased; in practice it announces the death to the village with the deceased’s clothes and loud calls.
망자를 다시 살리려는 소망으로 육신을 떠난 혼을 불러보는 일Calling the soul that has left the body, in the hope of bringing the deceased back to life.p7Danka (檀家) A household affiliated with a particular temple that gives offerings to it.
일정한 절에 소속되어 그 절에 보시를 하는 집을 단7H檀家)라고 한다A household that belongs to a certain temple and gives alms to that temple is called a danka (檀家).p19