Chapter 07 · Key paper

By asking the same questions in 1979 and 1998, the study compared how Koreans' values and the generation gap changed over 20 years.

Changes of Values and Generational Gaps Between 1970's and 1990's in Korea

1970년대와 1990년대 간 한국인의 가치관 변화와 세대차 증감

나은영, 차재호 (1999). 1970년대와 1990년대 간 한국인의 가치관 변화와 세대차 증감. 한국심리학회지: 사회 및 성격, 13(2), 37-60.

QUESTION

Comparing Korean values in the 1970s and 1990s, which values changed a lot and which stayed stable, and in which values did the generation gap widen or narrow?

FINDINGS

The most striking change by the late 1990s was a rise in individualism centered on oneself and one's family, especially among the young and the highly educated and higher-income.

자신과 가족 중심의 개인주의 증가(특히 짊은 층과 고학력 및 고소득층을 중심으로)Increase in individualism centered on self and family (especially among the young and the highly educated and high-income).p1

조사 결과, 1990년대 말에 가장 눈에 띄는 한국인의 가치관은The survey showed that the most notable Korean values in the late 1990s were…p1

Egalitarian views toward women grew: more acceptance of women's social activity and a weaker emphasis on chastity.

여성에 대한 평등의식 증가(사회활동 허용, 청조관념 감소 등)Increase in egalitarian views toward women (permitting social activity, decline in the chastity ideal, etc.).p1

The fast-moving shift toward postmaterialism (valuing quality of life over material things) paused in 1998, after the IMF financial crisis, and briefly swung back toward materialism.

탈물질주의로 치닫던 경향이 1998년에는 대체로 주춤해지면서 물질 주의 쪽으로 잠시 후회한 경향도 보였는데…the trend racing toward postmaterialism largely paused in 1998 and showed a temporary retreat toward materialism…p1

1997 년 말 국제통화기금(IMF)의 구제금윻을 받기 이전에…before receiving the IMF bailout at the end of 1997…p1

권위를 덜 강조하며 개인의 권리와 삶의 질을 중요시하고 주관적 안녕감 을 극대화하는 방향으로…in the direction of placing less emphasis on authority, valuing individual rights and quality of life, and maximizing subjective well-being…p3

The faster a value changed, the more the generation gap widened — which the authors attribute to younger people changing more than older people.

대체로 급격히 변화하는 가치관일수록 세대 차가 더 크게 증가했으며, 이는 젊은 층의 변화 폭이 고연령충의 변화 폭보다Generally, the more rapidly a value changed, the more the generation gap increased, and this is because the change among the young was larger than that among older people…p1

이는 젊은 층의 변화 폭이 고연령충의 변화 폭보다 더 큰 데 기인하는 것으로 해석된다…which is interpreted as due to the young changing more than the old.p1

IN DAILY LIFE

Asked whether filial piety (hyo, 효) means getting ahead in the world or taking care of one's parents, older, less-educated people living in smaller places tended to choose caring for parents.

연령이 높을수록, 교육 수준이 낮을수록, 그리고 작은 지역에 살수록(지역규모별 2=14.71, p<.0이) 출세보다 부모 봉양을 더 효 도라고The older, the less educated, and the smaller the area one lives in, the more one tends to consider supporting one's parents, rather than worldly success, as filial piety.p5

Korea's “ppalli-ppalli” (빨리빨리, “hurry, hurry”) culture of wanting to finish things quickly — the authors ask how this tendency should be understood.

일을 빨리 끝내고 싶어히는 것, 즉 한 국의 “빨리빨리” 문화는 과연 불확실성 회피 성향으Wanting to finish work quickly — that is, Korea's “ppalli-ppalli” culture — is it really [a sign of] uncertainty avoidance…p8

로 보아야 할 지 아니면 여성적 문화 속의 성취지향 성(즉, 남성성)으로 보아야 할 지 의문점이 생긴다…the question arises whether it should be seen as [uncertainty avoidance] or as achievement orientation (masculinity) within a feminine culture.p9

Caveats — Based on a scanned original converted to text; numbers appear only where a quoted passage shows them. The 1979 data come from an earlier survey (Cha, 1985).

In depth

This paper, more closely — every sentence carries an original quote and page number.

Background

Earlier international research (Inglehart, 1997) showed that among 43 industrialized countries surveyed, Korea had the largest generation gap.

산업화된 43개 조사대상국 중 한국 사회가 “가장 큰 세대차를 보이는" 사회임을 가시적으로 보여 주었…visibly showed that among the 43 industrialized countries surveyed, Korean society was the one “showing the largest generation gap.”p1

There had been many surveys of Korean values, but almost none reused decades-old questions word for word to measure change over time accurately.

시대변화를 경 확하 분석하기 위해 몇십 년 전의 문항들~을 그대로 사용하여 조사한 연구는 거의 없다…there is almost no research that used decades-old items as they were in order to analyze change over time accurately.p2

Method

The value items from a 1979 survey (by Cha Jae-ho) were included unchanged in a 1998 survey for a direct comparison 20 years apart. The generation gap was computed by comparing people in their 20s and 50s in both years, and people in their 40s in 1998 (the 1979 twenty-somethings) were used to separate period effects from age effects.

1998: 800 adults aged 20+ nationwide excluding Jeju (multistage stratified sampling proportional to population). 1979: people in their 20s and 50s by education and residence.
Respondents chose one of two options on 21 value items (e.g., “What a person should hold highest is: one's country / oneself and one's family”) and picked 6 of 12 national goals to score postmaterialism. Data were collected in August 1998 through one-on-one interviews by a research firm.

1998년의 조사 자료를 구성할 때 가치관과 관련되는 문형1들 중 상당수(21문항 중 19문항)를When composing the 1998 survey, a large share of the value-related items (19 of 21 items)…p2

20년 간격의 두 시기 자료의 맞비교가 가능하도록 설계하 였다…designed so that data from two periods 20 years apart could be directly compared.p1

두 시기의 20대 자료와 50대 자료를 마주 비교할 수가 있었다…we could directly compare the data of people in their 20s and 50s from the two periods.p2

1990년대의 40대 자료를 함께 이용하여 20년 간의 변화 내용 가운데 어떤 가치관이 시대효과가 크 고 어떤 가치관이 연령효과가 큰 지도 가려낼 수 있…using the 1990s data on people in their 40s as well, we could tell which values had large period effects and which had large age effects over the 20 years.p2

1970년대의 20대가 20년 간의 시디1현화 를 겪으면서 나이가 들어 1990년대의 40대가 되었을…those in their 20s in the 1970s, going through 20 years of change, would have aged into their 40s in the 1990s.p2

인구크기에 비례한 다단계 층화 표집법에 근거하 여, 제주도를 제의한 전국의 만20세 이상 성인남너Based on multistage stratified sampling proportional to population size, adults aged 20 and over nationwide, excluding Jeju…p3

인구비례에 의해 전국의 20세 이상 성인남녀 800명을 표집했기…because we sampled 800 adult men and women aged 20 and over nationwide in proportion to population…p2

1979년 당시의 20대와 50대 연령층을 조사하여 세대차를 비 교하였다…surveyed people in their 20s and 50s in 1979 and compared the generation gap.p2

연령과 함께 근대성(modermty) 현인의 하 나로 학력과 거주지를 동시에 고려하였다Along with age, education and residence were considered together as indicators of modernity.p2

두 개의 선택지 가은 데 자신의 의견에 가까운 것을 하나 고르도록 되어 있었다…respondents chose, of two options, the one closer to their own opinion.p3

“사람이 가장 떠받 들어야 할 것은 (1)자기의 나라이다" 또는 “(2)자기 자신과 자신의 가족이다”“What a person should most revere is (1) one's country” or “(2) oneself and one's family.”p3

장기적인 국 가목표 12가지 중 중요하게 꼽은 6가지 안에…among the 6 chosen as important out of 12 long-term national goals…p3

현대리서치에 의뢰하여 1998년 8월 7일부터 8월 25일까지의 기간 중에 조사를 실시하였다The survey was commissioned to Hyundai Research and conducted from August 7 to August 25, 1998.p4

1:1 개별면 접조사(face-to-face interview)를 함으로써 자료를 수 집하였다Data were collected through one-on-one face-to-face interviews.p4

Detailed findings

The share choosing “oneself and one's family” rather than “one's country” as what to hold highest rose sharply compared with the 1970s.

1970년대에 비해 자신과 가족이 중요하다고 생각하는 비율이 급격히 높아지는 추세이며Compared with the 1970s, the share who think oneself and family are important is rising sharply…p4

사람이 가장 떠받들어야 할 것으로 나라를 택할 것인지 자신과 기축을 택할 것인지를 묻 는 내용이었는데…the item asked whether to choose the country or oneself and one's family as what a person should most revere…p4

By 1998, both men and women valued themselves and their families more than the country.

현재는 남니 모두 나 라보다 자신과 가족을 더 중요시하는 상대이다Now both men and women value oneself and family more than the country.p5

Especially among people in their 20s, the share who saw chunghyo (충효) — loyalty to the nation and filial piety — as unimportant rose sharply.

특히 20대의 경우 충효사상을 경시하 는 비율이 급격하게 높아지고 있으며Especially among those in their 20s, the share who disregard the ideal of loyalty and filial piety is rising sharply…p4

More people said one should point out a superior's mistakes, but women's increase (22.3%) far exceeded men's (3.6%).

남자는 3.6%, 여지는 22.3% 증가하여 여자의 시대면 화 폭이 훨씬 더 크다Men increased by 3.6% and women by 22.3%, so women's change over time was far greater.p6

윗사람이 들렸을 때 지적해야 한다고 응답한 비율이 남녀 모두 증가하기는 했으나The share answering that one should point it out when a superior is wrong increased for both men and women, but…p6

The share saying chastity (premarital virginity) need not be kept rose from 12% in the 1970s to 28.85% in the 1990s.

1970년대에는 정조를 꼭 지킬 필요 가 없다고 생각하는 비율이 12%에 그쳤으나 1990년 대에는 무려 16.85%나 증가한 28.85%로서In the 1970s, the share who thought chastity need not necessarily be kept was only 12%, but in the 1990s it rose by as much as 16.85% to 28.85%…p11

16. 처녀는 결혼할 때까지 1) 정조를 지켜야 한다16. An unmarried woman 1) should keep her chastity until marriage.p22

In the 1970s, more than half said “a married woman's place is in the home”; in the 1990s, more than half said married women should also go out and be active, like men.

1970년대에는 반수 이상이 결혼 한 여자의 자리는 역시 가정 안이라고 응답했으나, 1990년대에는 반수 이상이 결혼한 여자도In the 1970s, more than half answered that a married woman's place is, after all, in the home, but in the 1990s more than half [answered that] married women too…p11

1) 결혼한 여자도 남자처럼 밖에 나가 활등-을 해야 한다1) A married woman should also go out and be active, like a man.p22

Young people moved faster both toward postmaterialism and, after the IMF crisis, in the temporary swing back toward materialism.

젊은 층이 빨랐으나, IMF 이후 물질 주의 쪽으로 잠시 역행하는 속도도 젊은 층이 빠르다…the young were faster, and after the IMF the speed of temporarily reversing toward materialism is also faster among the young.p15

The authors read late-1990s Korea as a period in which values pursuing material abundance coexist with assertive, postmodern values.

말의 한국 사회는 물질적 풍요를 추구하는 가치와 자 기주장적 • 탈현대적인 가치가 공존뿌는 시기…Korean society at the end of the [1990s] is a period in which values pursuing material abundance and assertive, postmodern values coexist.p14

Authors’ interpretation

The generation gap widened most in values where the times move one way but people move the other way as they age (such as loyalty-and-filial-piety and chastity).

이런 항목들에서는 시대효과와 연령효과가 반 대방항이u로, 대체로 이 부분에서 세대자의 증가폭 이 크다In these items, the period effect and the age effect run in opposite directions, and generally this is where the generation gap grows most.p18

(1)시대가 지날수록 충효사상을 덜 중요시하지 만, 나이가 •들수록(1) As time passes, people value chunghyo less, but as they age…p18

지날수록 정조를 지키지 않아도 된다는 생각이 점차 늘어나지만, 나이가 들수록 정조를 지켜야 한다 고 생각한다…as time passes, more people think chastity need not be kept, but as they age they think it should be kept.p18

Just as the least jarring way to board a moving train is to run in the same direction and jump on, the authors suggest anticipating the direction and speed of change and moving with it.

기차와 같은 방향으로(즉, 변화의 방향과 같은 방향으로) 달 리면서 기차에 올라타는 것이 가장 충격을 적게 받는 방법이다…running in the same direction as the train (that is, the same direction as the change) and then boarding it is the way to receive the least shock.p19

앞 으로의 변화 방향과 속도를 예측하고 바람직한 방향 으로의 합류 기능성을 탐색하는 것이 적절해 보인다…it seems appropriate to predict the direction and speed of future change and explore joining it in a desirable direction.p19

Even when values differ, communication must not break down if bigger conflicts are to be prevented.

가치관이 달라도 의사소통의 단절은 막아야만 더 욱 큰 갈등을 예방할 수 있을 것Even if values differ, a breakdown in communication must be prevented in order to avoid even greater conflict.p19

Limits the authors note

Seoul residents valued enjoying the present over preparing for the future more than others, but this survey cannot say whether living in Seoul causes that or the reverse.

여기서 인과관계에 관한 결론은 내릴 수 없다. 즉, 서울에 살기 때문에 현재를 즐기는 것이 더 중요하다 고 여기는지No conclusion about causality can be drawn here; that is, whether people consider enjoying the present more important because they live in Seoul…p10

거주자들에 비해 미래를 대비하기보다 현재를 즐기는 것이 더 중요하 다고 응답한 비율이 높았다…[Seoul residents,] compared with residents [of other regions], more often answered that enjoying the present matters more than preparing for the future.p10

Items within the same cultural dimension did not correlate very highly, so item-by-item results are more reliable than combined dimension scores.

각 문화차원 내의 항목들 간 상관관계 가 그리 높게 나오지는 않았기 때문에…because the correlations among items within each cultural dimension were not very high…p13

하나하나의 문항별로 분석한 결과가 더 신뢰롭겠 으나…results analyzed item by item would be more reliable, but…p13

Key terms

Postmaterialism The values that follow a materialist era focused on economic growth and achievement — less emphasis on authority and more on individual rights, quality of life, and subjective well-being.

권위를 덜 강조하며 개인의 권리와 삶의 질을 중요시하고 주관적 안녕감 을 극대화하는 방향으로…placing less emphasis on authority, valuing individual rights and quality of life, and in the direction of maximizing subjective well-being…p3

이성적 • 합법적 권위의 기반 위에서 경 제성장과 성취동기에 역점을 두었던 시대가 물질주의 의 시대라면If the era that emphasized economic growth and achievement motivation on the basis of rational-legal authority is the era of materialism…p3

Period effect and age effect The difference between people in their 20s in 1979 and in 1998 is a pure “period effect”; the difference between the 1979 twenty-somethings and the 1998 forty-somethings, minus the period effect, is a pure “age effect.”

1970년대의 2()대와 1990년대의 20대 간 차이는 순수 한 시대효과만을 반영할 것이다. 끝0루` (1)에서 (2) 를 뺀 값은 수수한 연령효과라고 할 수 있을 것이다The difference between those in their 20s in the 1970s and those in their 20s in the 1990s will reflect only the pure period effect. Finally, (1) minus (2) can be called the pure age effect.p2

Generation gap In this paper, calculated as how much the answers of people in their 20s differ from those in their 50s in the same year.

각 연도에서 20대의 응답과 50대의 응답 간 차이를 구함으로써 계산하였고…calculated by taking the difference between the responses of those in their 20s and those in their 50s in each year…p16